Evaluating the Impact of Digital Resources on University Students' Self-Perception and Academic Performance in ESP Learning

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-6503341/v1

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Evaluating the Impact of Digital Resources on University Students' Self-Perception and Academic Performance in ESP Learning

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6503341/v1

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This study explores the impact of digital resources, specifically platforms and games, on the academic performance and self-perception of university students studying English for Specific Purposes (ESP). While previous research has acknowledged the motivational benefits of digital tools, this study distinguishes between students with very high and very low self-perception levels, thus offering a novel perspective on differentiated academic outcomes. The purpose of the research is to determine how digital resources influence academic achievement and to identify pedagogical strategies that can support students based on their self-perception profiles. The study is motivated by the need to enhance student engagement, autonomous learning, and metacognitive awareness in higher education settings, particularly in the context of ESP instruction. A quantitative, quasi-experimental design was adopted, using academic performance tests and a self-perception questionnaire as measurement tools. A within-subjects design was employed, where the same cohort of students first received traditional instruction (six weeks) and subsequently instruction integrating digital resources (eight weeks). Weekly academic assessments and a final self-perception questionnaire were administered. Comparative analyses were conducted between the academic results and self-perception classifications. The main findings reveal that the use of digital resources significantly improves students' academic performance compared to traditional teaching methods. Digital platforms were especially beneficial for students with very low self-perception by promoting autonomous learning, while digital games positively impacted all students, with particularly strong effects among those with very high self-perception. The practical implications suggest that instructors should strategically integrate digital platforms and games to address students' diverse learning needs and enhance academic achievement. Furthermore, fostering metacognitive strategies could amplify the positive effects of digital tools, suggesting a rethinking of current teaching practices in higher education. This study contributes to the field by highlighting the dual role of digital resources in supporting both academic performance and self-perception among ESP students. It offers valuable insights for educators and curriculum designers aiming to create more inclusive, motivating, and effective learning environments.

English for Specific Purposes

digital games

digital platforms

self-perception

academic performance

higher education

Technology has become an integral part of modern life, influencing various domains such as communication, healthcare, entertainment, and business (Levin & Mamlok, 2021). The ongoing digital transformation has reshaped societal structures, prompting the need for its integration into education (Anthonysame et al., 2021; Gobble, 2018). Universities play a crucial role in equipping students with the competencies necessary for navigating technology-driven environments. The expansion of digital learning ecosystems aims to establish interdisciplinary networks that foster innovation and adaptability (Nguyen & Tuamsuk, 2022). To thrive in a knowledge-based society, students must cultivate digital literacy and critical thinking skills, enabling them to engage with information effectively and make informed decisions. The European Union (2018) recognizes digital competence as a fundamental skill for lifelong learning, emphasizing its importance in higher education for both students (DigComp) and educators (DigCompEdu) (Redecker & Punie, 2017). By creating digital resources and providing a digital learning environment in higher education, we are preparing undergraduate students for their future endeavors making them develop their digital literacy skills.

The traditional role of instructors as sole knowledge providers is gradually evolving into that of facilitators who guide students in optimizing their learning processes (Strelan et al., 2020). Within this paradigm, self-perceived learning emerges as a vital strategy, fostering improved academic performance, motivation, and metacognitive skills (Ma & Chiu, 2024). Information and communication technologies (ICT) and learning and knowledge technologies (LKT) offer valuable resources that support self-perceived learning through interactive platforms that encourage active student participation (Samoylenko et al., 2022). However, despite many universities implementing digital strategies, challenges persist in their effective application (Castro et al., 2020). When combined with well-structured pedagogical approaches, digital tools can significantly enhance student engagement, which has been linked to increased motivation, academic achievement, retention, and overall course satisfaction (Reeve & Lee, 2014; Bonet & Walters, 2016). Thus, digital technologies should be recognized as catalysts for more dynamic and interactive learning experiences, applicable to both online and traditional classroom settings (Wekerle & Kollar, 2022). All of this is framed within the paradigm of the constructivist theory of learning (Vygotsky, 1978), in which the instructor acts as a mediator and the student plays an active, collaborative role in constructing both specific and transversal knowledge essential for their academic and professional development.

The role of digital games with educational purposes

Games serve as a pivotal instrument for the holistic development of individuals, encompassing various dimensions such as psychomotor, neurological, social-ethical, cognitive, affective-emotional, and educational transfer (Larson, 2020; Wadley & Stagnitti, 2020). The act of playing facilitates exploration of the surrounding environment, problem-solving, experimentation with new ideas, and self-discovery, positioning play as a universal language for learning (Hutt et al., 2022). Games offer diverse frameworks to ensure motivation, allowing players to experience graceful failures, learn from mistakes, and retry.

Empirical research and pedagogical practices have demonstrated the efficacy of games as tools for innovation in higher education (Chang et al., 2020; Troussas et al., 2020; Chen, 2023; Rodríguez-Ferrer et al., 2023). Studies by Dahalan et al. (2023) and Liu et al. (2020) indicate that games enhance attention to content, motivation, and learning efficiency, among other aspects. Consequently, the Game-Based Learning (GBL) methodology is advocated for cultivating 21st -century skills by creating enriched learning environments and educational resources that enable learners to engage in projects and activities fostering knowledge discovery, application, and development (Bakhsh et al., 2022). Globally, educators recognize GBL as an effective methodology that centers the student in the teaching and learning process, promoting active learner engagement and meaningful, competent learning (Fernandez-Raga et al., 2023; Pineda-Martinez et al., 2023). GBL environments enhance knowledge and skill acquisition through game content and playfulness, involving problem-solving spaces and challenges that provide a sense of accomplishment (Wardoyo et al., 2021). This methodology allows students to work towards goals, make choices, and experience the consequences in a safe, engaging environment, facilitating experimentation. The learning pace is tailored to students' needs, enabling easy transfer of learning to real-world contexts (Trybus, 2015). Gentile et al. (2014) identified three key elements in the GBL model: challenge, response, and feedback, forming a continuous loop of learning.

Digital games, a prevalent leisure activity among youth and adults, have garnered attention from researchers and educators for their potential to promote networked and autonomous learning, motivate new generations, and engage them in their educational journey (Shohel et al., 2022; Udeozor et al., 2022). Nearpod, an interactive learning platform, significantly enhances student interaction through features such as polls, quizzes, interactive videos, and collaborative tasks (Dong et al., 2018; Sarginson & McPherson, 2021). Described by Hakami (2020) as a web-based learning application that manages interactivities during learning experiences, this platform supports both synchronous and asynchronous learning environments, facilitating the transition from lecture-based instruction to individual or group activities (Pérez, 2017). Research by Ríos-Zaruma et al. (2019) demonstrated that Nearpod fosters active and collaborative learning between teachers and students, effectively enhancing student interaction, engagement, and real-time assessment while McClean and Crowe (2017) highlighted its role in enhancing classroom dynamics. Additionally, Albdullah et al. (2022) identified Nearpod as an efficient tool for boosting students' motivation and interest, leading to improved academic performance. Upon session completion, Nearpod generates comprehensive reports detailing all activities, including student responses, scores, participation levels, and interactions (Burton, 2019). Despite its advantages, Nearpod has certain limitations, such as restricted cloud storage that limits the use of long videos and the absence of a comprehensive guidebook to facilitate its use (Albdullah et al., 2022).

Quizizz is an innovative online multiplayer game designed to create and manage quizzes in an engaging and interactive manner. Educators can craft various question types, including multiple-choice and true/false, which students can respond to using mobile devices, computers, or tablets. The platform is equipped with robust result analysis tools, enabling teachers to effectively evaluate student performance. Quizizz significantly enhances the learning experience by making it more enjoyable, with music, pictures, avatars and motivational memes which can have a positive impact on students’ learning outcomes (Handayani et al., 2024). It also provides a collaborative learning environment, thereby promoting student engagement and participation (Carrión, 2022; Páez-Quinde et al., 2022). Quizizz has been proven as an effective digital game in educational settings. Sitompul et al. (2023) found that the use of Quizizz in higher education significantly increased student engagement and self-confidence, Janković and Lambić (2022) demonstrated that students preferred Quizizz over other digital games like Kahoot! due to its user-friendly interface and engaging features. In addition, Katemba and Sinuhaji (2021) utilized Quizizz to teach English as a foreign language (EFL) vocabulary, demonstrating significant quantitative differences between the control and experimental groups in terms of vocabulary acquisition and usage.

Enhancing learning through digital platforms

Interactive platforms represent a dynamic convergence of technology and pedagogy, offering engaging and effective learning experiences. Educational digital platforms provide unparalleled accessibility and flexibility, enabling students to engage with course materials at any time and from any location as long as they have an internet connection. This flexibility is particularly advantageous for non-traditional students, such as working professionals and those with family commitments, who may find it challenging to attend traditional in-person classes. According to Allen and Seaman (2017), online learning platforms have significantly increased enrollment in higher education by making education more accessible. Genially, Prezi, and Canvas are examples of digital interactive platforms that allow students to access lectures, multimodal information and assignments at their convenience, accommodating diverse schedules and learning paces. This personalized approach enhances learning efficiency and outcomes by ensuring that students receive targeted support and resources. Pugliese (2016) demonstrated that adaptive learning platforms significantly improve student performance by customizing learning pathways based on real-time data. Furthermore, digital platforms facilitate cohesive and flexible blended learning, combining face-to-face instruction with online components.

Prezi is a tool that enables users to create, deliver, and store online presentations (Ustun, 2019). It offers a large blank workspace where users can incorporate a wide range of components, with its zooming feature being particularly notable (Settle et al., 2011). This zooming capability creates a sense of movement effect, presenting concepts, ideas, and connections by integrating texts, images, audio, animations, and videos in an animated virtual space (Moulton et al., 2017). Strasser (2014) categorized the benefits of Prezi into four areas: i) creativity in designing dynamic and attractive presentations; ii) relationships, allowing users to make conceptual connections between different parts of the presentation and the topic itself; iii) visualization, enabling customization with various fonts, colors, and visual aids; and iv) collaboration, facilitating synchronous or asynchronous collaborative work and easy sharing with other users. Research has shown improvements in academic performance when employing Prezi compared to traditional teaching methods (Al-Hammouri, 2018; Mokhtari, 2021).

Genially captures students' attention through customizable designs (Tapia-Machuca et al., 2020) and provides memorable educational experiences (Tutillo-Piña et al., 2020). By incorporating creative and dynamic elements, Genially engages users through exploration and discovery, enhancing content retention (Domínguez-Parrales, 2024). Cabrera-Solano (2022) demonstrated improvements in academic performance among university students using Genially, particularly in EFL grammar and vocabulary mastery. Also, Castillo-Cuesta (2022) reported significant differences and higher academic scores in EFL reading and writing when Genially was utilized.

The use of digital platforms and digital game-based resources can enhance students' ESP learning, fostering the development of students’ communicative competence to fulfil future professional endeavors in the digital era. Empirical studies have consistently demonstrated the positive impact of digital resources on learning outcomes.

Objectives

The primary aim of this study is to evaluate students’ self-perception of their ESP learning process through the integration of digital resources in natural face-to-face classroom settings among university students. Previous research has demonstrated the positive impact of digital resources on learning outcomes and academic performance (Alenezi, 2023; Alshammary & Alhalafawy, 2022; Candel et al., 2024; Chaves-Yuste & de-la-Peña, 2025). In this study, self-perception is assessed through multiple-choice academic tests administered at the end of each session, alongside a final questionnaire designed to capture students' self-perception of their Tourism ESP learning process. The main research question of this study is: Are there differences between university students who perceive better their learning thanks to the use of digital resources employed in the classroom (very high self-perception) and those who perceive otherwise (very low self-perception)?

The objective is to evaluate the effect of digital resources on students' perception of information during lessons, differentiating between those who perceive their learning process well and those who do not. Specifically, the study seeks:

To analyze differences in academic performance between those students who perceive their learning process very well and those who do not.

To examine differences in self-perception of their learning between these two groups.

Based on the literature review and defined objectives, the following hypotheses are proposed:

Hypothesis 1

Academic performance, when utilizing digital resources, is significantly higher when students perceive their learning process very well compared to those who do not.

Hypothesis 2

The self-perception of learning, when digital resources are employed, is significantly higher among students who already exhibit a very high self-perception.

The findings of this study will allow for a deeper understanding of whether digital resources improve their self-perception of their learning process for both groups of students—those who perceive their learning very well and those who do not. A deeper examination of the differences between these two groups regarding academic performance and learning self-perception will inform the development of methodological strategies aimed at optimizing the learning experiences of all students.

Research Design

This study adopts a quantitative, quasi-experimental design employing academic performance tests and a self-perception questionnaire as measurement tools. The same cohort of participants serves as both the control group (traditional teaching without digital resources for six weeks) and the experimental group (instruction integrating digital resources, such as platforms and games, for eight weeks). This within-subject design minimizes individual differences and potential bias. Throughout the six-week traditional instruction phase and the subsequent eight-week digital resource phase, students completed weekly graded academic assessments. Upon completion of the digital resource phase, students also completed a self-perception questionnaire. The first question of the questionnaire served to classify participants as having very high or very low self-perception based on their responses. To avoid influencing students’ behavior during the digital phase, the questionnaire was administered only after all digital resources had been used.

Subsequently, comparative analyses were conducted on the academic performance scores from all tests and the eight-item questionnaire assessing self-perception. The deployment of digital resources was randomized, with each resource employed for a specified duration (seven weeks). Specifically, three digital platforms and three digital games were utilized. The total study duration was fourteen weeks, conducted during the 2023–2024 academic year. The independent variable comprised two student groups classified as students with a very high or very low self-perception. The dependent variables included: (1) academic performance, measured through weekly academic tests, and (2) self-perception, measured via an eight-item Likert-type questionnaire administered at the study’s conclusion.

Participants

Participants were selected through non-probabilistic, incidental sampling based on accessibility to first-year undergraduate students from two on-site universities. Initially, 112 students enrolled; however, 18 were excluded—one due to visual impairment and seventeen for incomplete data caused by absences. The final sample consisted of 94 students who completed all academic tests and the perception questionnaire. Students were classified as follows: 21 students showed a high perception of their learning (86% female, 14% male) and 19 had a low perception (89% female, 11% male). All participants were Spanish native speakers, aged 18–20, with no prior experience using the digital platforms or resources integrated into the study.

Eligibility criteria included providing informed consent, absence of diagnosed disabilities or disorders, consistent attendance to complete all weekly assessments, and the final self-perception questionnaire. The study protocol received ethical approval from the International University of La Rioja Ethics Committee (approval code: PI: 055/2023).

Assessments and Measures

Two ad hoc instruments were developed to collect data: academic performance tests and a self-perception questionnaire. The content validation of the eight questionnaire items was conducted through inter-judge agreement. Three university professors, experts in the subject and selected based on convenience sampling, evaluated whether they agreed or disagreed with the wording, coherence, and relevance of each questionnaire item. The Kappa coefficient yielded a value of 0.87, indicating a high level of agreement among the judges. The reliability of the questionnaire was estimated after the implementation of all digital resources (α = 0.912; Ω = 0.923).

Academic Performance:

Comprehension of classroom content was assessed through multiple-choice tests administered weekly. Each test contained ten questions with four options, only one of which was correct. Tests were standardized in format, length, and difficulty to avoid bias. Correct answers were awarded one point, and incorrect answers received zero. Scores were aggregated to produce a final grade per test, graded as follows: 0-4.99 (fail), 5-5.99 (pass), 6-6.99 (satisfactory), 7-8.99 (good), and 9–10 (excellent). Content validity of these tests was established through inter-rater agreement by three expert university professors. Agreement was measured using the Kappa coefficient, which yielded a value of 0.83, indicating a high level of inter-rater reliability. The tests are as follows:

Traditional Test: Comprising six tests, the average score of which constitutes the final grade (one test per week, weeks 1–6). Each test contains ten multiple-choice questions with one correct answer, each correct answer is worth one point and incorrect answers are worth zero points. The score range is 0–10 points.

Digital Platform Test: Comprising four tests, the average score of which constitutes the final grade (one test per week, weeks 7–14). The tests are divided as follows:

Prezi (weeks 7–8): Ten multiple-choice questions with one correct answer, each correct answer is worth one point. Score ranges from 0 to10 points.
Genially (premium version) (Weeks 9–10): Ten multiple-choice questions with one correct answer, each correct answer is worth one point. Score ranges from 0 to 10 points.

Digital Game-Based Resources Test: Comprising four tests, the average score of which constitutes the final grade (one test per week). The tests are divided as follows:

Quizizz (Weeks 11–12): Ten multiple-choice questions with one correct answer, each correct answer is worth one point. Scores range from 0 to10 points.
Nearpod (premium version) (weeks 13–14): Ten multiple-choice questions with one correct answer, each correct answer is worth one point. Scores range from 0 to 10 points.

Perception:

A nine-item online Likert-scale questionnaire (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree) was designed to assess students' self-perception of learning process when employing digital resources. The first item—"I am aware that digital resources improve my understanding of classroom content"—was used to classify students as very high (score of 5) or very low (score of 1) self-perceived students.

The remaining eight questions in the questionnaire are as follows: #1. “After the teacher’s explanation of digital resources, I ask myself whether I understand it or not,” # 2. “I feel confident in the knowledge I develop and acquire through digital resources,” # 3. “I am aware that my ability to solve subject-related problems improves,” # 4. “I am aware that my teamwork skills with other classmates improve,” #5. “I feel capable of using digital resources independently after the teacher has introduced them in class,” # 6. “I feel that my self-assessment of learning improves,” # 7. “I feel that my learning improves by keeping my training up to date,” and # 8. “I am aware that what I learn through the use of digital resources in the classroom can be applied to my future professional career.” This questionnaire is administered at the end of the study, after the last digital resource has been implemented. Content validity was confirmed through expert review by three university professors, yielding a Kappa coefficient of 0.87. Internal consistency was high (α = 0.912; Ω = 0.923).

Procedure

Following ethical approval, permissions were secured from the participating universities, ensuring confidentiality of student data. A randomized schedule of digital resources and academic tests was developed. At the onset of the semester, instructors informed students about the study, obtained informed consent, and commenced the traditional teaching phase (six weeks, textbook-based, traditional lecturing). This was followed by the digital teaching phase (eight weeks) employing a game-based learning methodology with platforms Prezi and Genially and games with Quizizz and Nearpod. Platforms were utilized first, followed by digital games. Within each type, resource selection was randomized. The contents covered during the fourteen weeks of instruction were related to Tourism ESP. (tourist services, transport, destinations, accommodation, and leisure activities). Instruction was delivered by the same faculty under identical conditions to control for instructor-related bias. Classrooms were equipped with appropriate lighting and acoustics.

Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were computed for all academic tests and questionnaire items. The Shapiro-Wilk test was used to assess normality. Results indicated normal distribution for digital platform performance, digital game performance, and traditional instruction performance (p > 0.05), allowing for inferential analysis via Student’s t-test. However, overall digital resource performance and the eight perception items were non-normally distributed (p = 0.00). Consequently, the Mann-Whitney U test was employed for inferential analysis of these variables. Effect sizes for significant results were calculated using the Common Language Effect Size (CLES) (McGraw & Wong, 1992) for non-parametric figures.

Control variables included age (restricted to 18–20 years) and gender. Due to the low percentage of male participants, gender-based analysis was not deemed statistically valid. All analyses were conducted using SPSS (IBM, 2016), with a significance level set at p < 0.05.

The results of the descriptive analysis of academic performance in the assessment tests, including mean and standard deviation, are presented in Table 1. The grading criteria for academic performance assessments are as follows: 0–4.99 points indicate a fail, 5–5.99 a pass, 6–6.99 satisfactory, 7–8.99 good, and 9–10 excellent. As shown in Table 1, overall academic performance among university students is generally low, fluctuating between fail and pass levels for both students with a very high and very low self-perception. The academic performance of those students who had a high perception of their learning using digital resources—both platforms and digital games—falls within the pass and satisfactory levels. On the contrary, for students with a very low self-perception, academic performance when using digital resources remains at the fail and pass levels. Academic performance without digital resources is at the fail level for both groups, with better results observed when digital resources are employed. In all academic assessments, performance is lower among students with a very low self-perception. Additionally, among those students with a very high self-perception, academic performance improves with the use of digital games, whereas for those with a very low self-perception, performance improves with digital platforms. Furthermore, students with a low perception benefit slightly more from digital resources than those with a high perception.

Inferential analysis (Table 1) revealed no statistically significant differences in academic performance between students with a very high and very low self-perception, regardless of instructional method (traditional, digital platforms, or digital games). These findings address the first objective and hypothesis, indicating that although students with a very high self-perception slightly outperformed students with a very low self-perception, the differences did not reach statistical significance.

Table 1

Academic performance of students with a very high self-perception vs. students with a very low self-perception
Variables	M	SD	t	p
Traditional teaching HSP	4.92	5.50	0.909	0.369
Traditional teaching LSP	4.19	5.87
Digital platform HSP	5.56	4.00	0.032	0.975
Digital platform LSP	5.54	4.47
Digital game-based resources HSP	6.09	4.37	1.495	0.143
Digital game-based resources LSP	4.97	6.21
			U
Total digital resources HSP	5.82	3.79	163.500	0.329
Total digital resources LSP	5.25	4.70

The results of the inferential analysis using the Mann-Whitney U test between students with a very high self-perception (HS-R) and students with a very low self-perception regarding their perception of content in the classroom when the instructor employs digital resources are presented in Table 2. Students with a very high self-perception of their learning have a significantly better perception of learning than students with a very low self-perception when using digital resources in a natural classroom setting. Specifically, they demonstrate greater awareness of understanding the content explanation, higher confidence in the information they learn, a stronger sense of problem-solving ability and teamwork, increased capacity to independently use these resources after initial exposure, greater awareness of self-assessment, and a stronger inclination toward updating their knowledge. Regarding their ability to apply the digital resources used in the classroom to other subjects or learning contexts, the results are on the threshold of statistical significance in favor of students with a high perception.

Table 2

Inferential Analysis Results for students with a very high self perception (HSP) vs. students with a very low self-perception (LSP)
Items	Rank Sum	U	p	Effect size
1. Understanding LSP HSP	279.50 540.50	89.500	.002^*	1
2.Confidence LSP HSP	281.00 539.00	91.000	.002^*	1
3.Problem-solving LSP HSP	308.50 511.50	118.500	.022^*	0.74
4.Teamwork LSP HSP	299.50 520.50	109.500	.010^*	0.835
5.Independence LSP HSP	302.50 517.50	112.500	.013^*	0.803
6.Self-assessment LSP HSP	308.50 511.50	118.500	.027^*	0.74
7.Knowledge LSP updating HSP	300.50 519.50	110.500	.015^*	0.824
8.Application LSP HSP	317.50 502.50	127.500	.050^*	0.648
*p < 0.05

The purpose of this research is to enhance meaningful learning through the use of digital resources in natural classroom conditions for university students. The study aims to assess whether the digital resources employed during classroom instruction positively impact students' academic performance and their perception of learning, distinguishing between those who had a very high or very low self-perception of their learning. Academic assessments were administered over fourteen weeks of traditional instruction and digital resource-based instruction (platforms and games), followed by a final questionnaire evaluating students' self-perception of their learning. The initial sample consisted of 112 first-year university students, which was later reduced to 40 participants: 20 students showed a very high self-perception and 19 show a very low self-perception. The results indicate an increase in academic performance for all students, regardless of their self-perception level, when digital resources are employed. Depending on the type of digital resource used, students with a high perception benefit more from digital games, whereas students with a very low self-perception benefit more from digital platforms. Consequently, these findings can be used to enhance the teaching-learning process in higher education.

Regarding the first research objective and hypothesis, the descriptive results clearly highlight the need for improved academic performance among all university students, regardless of whether traditional or digital resource-based methodologies (games and platforms) are used. These findings align with Wu (2019), who posits that robust academic performance yields multifaceted benefits for students, encompassing academic, personal, and professional domains. These benefits manifest as heightened productivity, an enhanced quality of life, and increased social equity. The pursuit of optimal academic performance, the reduction of dropout rates, and the enhancement of university education quality have long been focal points for policymakers, researchers, and academics. Within this framework, a pivotal strategy involves the refinement of teaching methodologies by educators to optimize student learning and performance. It is imperative that educators design instructional activities that position students as active participants, a process that may necessitate training in innovative pedagogical techniques and the utilization of digital resources (Almusharraf, 2021). The integration of digital resources, as noted by Asratie et al. (2023), can render more engaging lessons, thereby fostering increased student participation and interest. Recent research demonstrate that the integration of digital tools significantly enhances learning and academic performance (Alshammary & Alhalafawy, 2022; Jia et al., 2024) since the utilization of digital tools promotes creative reflection, active participation, and interaction among students, which positively influence socialization, learning, and performance (Opre et al., 2022). Di Michele et al. (2023) underscore the advantages of employing diverse digital resources in classroom settings. Martínez et al. (2023) assert that digital tools revolutionize classroom learning and Greipl et al. (2020) affirm that they should complement university teaching practices. This transformation facilitates the personalization of education and poses a pedagogical innovation challenge for educators (Haleem et al., 2022; Sillat et al., 2022). Modifying traditional teaching methods in higher education is imperative in the current educational landscape (Anane, 2022; Nguyen & Tuamsuk, 2022). However, despite the numerous advantages associated with digital game-based learning, certain limitations have been identified. Greipl et al. (2020) also contend that while games can enhance traditional educational methods, they cannot entirely replace them. Bakhsh et al. (2022) highlight several challenges, including the potentially high costs of implementing this approach, the necessity for continuously updated curricula, and the difficulties in integrating game-based learning into existing educational frameworks. Nevertheless, these challenges can be mitigated through the efficient management of learners' time, the use of various game types tailored to specific learning objectives, and the development of a validated instructional model.

The descriptive results illustrate the differences in academic performance between students with a very high and very low self-perception of their ESP learning when digital resources are employed in the classroom. Although all students improve their academic performance with digital resources, students with a high perception benefit more from digital games, whereas students with a very low self-perception benefit more from digital platforms. Zhang et al. (2024) revealed that through a self-perceived digital game-based English as a foreign language vocabulary learning scenario, participants experienced significantly greater improvements in vocabulary knowledge and reported higher levels of motivation and self-perception compared to those in the conventional vocabulary learning context. This finding is consistent with previous research which found that when employing SRL strategies correctly, the speaking performance is better (Alotumi, 2021; Dinh and Phuong, 2025; Menggo et al., 2022). Although students with a very high self-perception achieve better academic performance, the differences are not statistically significant, meaning that the initial hypothesis—that academic performance with digital resources would be significantly higher for students with a very high self-perception than for students with a very low self-perception—is not verified. Since game-based learning can foster learners’ cognitive, behavioral, affective, and sociocultural engagement with the content taught (Castillo et al., 2023), metacognitive and cognitive prompting of games have proven to be effective strategies of SRL (Zumbach et al., 2020). Chen and Hsu (2020) found that self-efficacy and the intrinsic value, which affect self-perception, significantly influenced game engagement and experience.

Regarding the second research objective and hypothesis, the descriptive results based on Rank Sum reveal that students with a very high self-perception consistently have higher rank sums for all questionnaire items compared to students with a very low self-perception. Inferential analysis further shows that students with a very high self-perception have a significantly better perception of their learning when instructors utilize digital resources in the classroom, thereby confirming the second hypothesis. Students with very high self-perception consider themselves better at comprehending content explanations, demonstrating greater confidence in their learning, problem-solving abilities, teamwork skills, autonomy in using digital resources, capacity for self-assessment, and commitment to continuous updating training. Both digital games and platforms positively impact students' self-perception, particularly among those with a very high self-perception of learning. These findings are consistent with those of Stepić (2022), who reported improvements in university students' perception of learning when using digital resources, and with Opre et al. (2022), who highlighted that the interactivity of digital resources in the classroom fosters active collaboration among students and enhances academic performance. For instance, digital games encourage students to communicate and collaborate with one another, thereby improving their communication and cooperation skills (Kwiatkowska & Wiśniewska-Nogaj, 2022). Similarly, Zhao et al. (2022) noted an increase in students' learning outcomes following the integration of digital games into university instruction. Moreover, digitalization in teaching optimizes learning processes and positions students as central participants in their educational journey (Strelan et al., 2020). Tsang (2022) found out that when highly self-perceiving pronunciation, tertiary-level EFL students showed lower anxiety and their speech suggested nativelikeness, accuracy and intelligibility. Furthermore, Maican and Cocoradă (2021) stated that positive and negative emotions such as the self-perception of learning a foreign language (mostly English, but also French, German, or Spanish), the self-perception of the foreign language proficiency, the enjoyment, and the perception of the usefulness of the resources offered positively correlate with the learning strategies they may employ, and consequently, have a positive impact on academic performance. On the contrary, when students have a very low self-perception of their foreign language learning, they usually feel stressed, shy and experience difficulties in learning the language successfully

This study provides preliminary scientific evidence of the benefits of employing digital resources in a face-to-face ESP (English for Specific Purposes) university classroom, thereby motivating continued research to further enhance educational quality. ESP students not only improve the acquisition and development of a foreign language in professional contexts but also become proficient in utilizing a variety of digital tools that are transferable across different academic and professional domains. Thus, under the theoretical framework of the construction of one's own learning (Vygotsky, 1978), this approach contributes simultaneously to the attainment of ESP specific content and the development of university students' digital competence, an essential skill for academic achievement and future employability.

Limitations and Future Directions

The primary limitation of this study is the sample size for forming the two groups of students with a very high or very low self-perception of their learning. This classification depended on students' extreme responses on a Likert scale (1: strongly disagree to 5: strongly agree), which reduced the initial sample size. Additionally, the sample was selected based on convenience and accessibility. Moreover, all students were within the same age range (18–20 years) and predominantly female. Consequently, the generalizability of these results must be interpreted with caution and within the specific context of this study. Additionally, the study relied on a questionnaire designed ad hoc to assess students' self-perception. Validity indicators were ensured through inter-rater reliability assessments, yielding satisfactory values.

Future research should seek access to larger and more diverse samples to facilitate larger group formations of students with very high and very low self-perception. Additionally, hybrid and online learning contexts, alternative digital games and platforms, and the influence of affective variables on learning outcomes could be analyzed. It would be interesting to study the impact of motivation on self-perception and its correlation with academic performance, as well as the application of self-perceived strategies employed using different active methodologies. Therefore, similar studies could adopt a longitudinal approach to examine whether these differences between students with very high or very low self-perception persist until the completion of university studies.

Digital resources enhance meaningful learning in natural classroom conditions for university students, particularly among those who have a very high self-perception of their learning process. They achieve better academic performance than students with a very low self-perception in all assessments, benefiting more from digital games than digital platforms. Conversely, students with a very low self-perception benefit more from digital platforms, as their academic performance improves significantly with their use. Students with a very high self-perception significantly greater benefits in understanding content explanations, feeling more confident in the information they learn, problem-solving, teamwork, independent resource usage, self-assessment, and knowledge updating. Therefore, digital resources provide significant advantages for higher education and equip students with essential tools for future societal challenges.

Digital games improve academic performance compared to traditional instruction for all students but particularly benefit students with a very high self-perception during in-class learning. It is plausible that digital games enhance engagement and self-confidence particularly among students with a very high self-perception of learning, as these games introduce challenges and tasks that apply curricular content and provide a sense of achievement (Wardoyo et al., 2021). Digital platforms also enhance academic performance compared to traditional instruction, especially benefiting students with a very low self-perception during in-class learning. Such platforms explicitly present content, making it accessible at any time and removing the competitive dynamics typical of games, thus enhancing the learning perception of students with very low self-perception. Digital resources are transforming classroom methodologies by promoting a student-centered and active learning approach (Strelan et al., 2020). These tools foster interaction and the contextualization of curricular content by actively involving students in their learning (Dahalan et al., 2023).

The pedagogical implications of this study extend to both student learning and teaching strategies. On the one hand, employing digital resources in the classroom—whether platforms or games—has a beneficial effect on university students' academic performance. Students are likely to improve their academic achievements compared to traditional teaching methods due to increased motivation and higher participation rates in classroom activities and tasks. For example, Carpena and Esteve (2022) found that the use of digital resources simplifies task complexity, offers exercises directly aligned with learning objectives, and fosters student motivation, thereby leading to enhanced academic performance in contrast to conventional instruction without digital tools. On the other hand, instructors can enhance the academic performance of students with a very low self-perception by using digital platforms that explicitly present content for review after class, fostering autonomous learning. Additionally, the use of digital games improves all students' academic performance, particularly benefiting students with a very high self-perception, which could encourage instructors to integrate such tools into their university curricula. Furthermore, higher education could improve students’ metacognitive awareness of their learning to enhance both learning quality and academic performance. This could be achieved through instructional strategies within each course or through university-led extracurricular seminars for students. The incorporation of metacognitive strategies aimed at improving students’ self-perception of learning, together with the application of digital resources in classrooms, necessitates meaningful transformations in the teaching and learning processes of ESP students, ultimately favoring the collaborative construction of their knowledge.

CLES

Common Language Effect Size

EFL

English as a Foreign Language

ESP

English for Specific Purposes

GBL

Game-based Learning

HSP

High Self Perception

ICT

Information and Communication Technologies

LKT

Learning and Knowledge Technologies

LSP

Low Self Perception

Ethical approval and consent to participate

The participants’ written informed consent was obtained to participate in this study.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. The authors do not have conflict of interest to declare. They do not participate in an experimental study subsidized by an industry or business, are not speakers at events sponsored by an industry or business, are not members of a board of directors of an industry or business, do not participate in regulatory committees of scientific studies sponsored by an industry or business, do not receive institutional financial support of an industry or business, do not share stocks in an industry or business or do not prepare/ develop scientific papers for journals sponsored by industries or business.

Author Contribution

BCY (the first author) contributed to conducting the study using an experimental design and quantitative case study,writing the abstract, introduction, theoretical framework, research methodology, discussion, conclusions and lists of references. CDLP (the second author) contributed to analyzing the datasets and results, and writing the research methodology, discussion, conclusion and lists of references. Both authors thoroughly read, reviewed, and approved the manuscript.

Data Availability

The datasets utilized and/or examined during the current study can be obtained from the corresponding author, [BCY], upon reasonable request .

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Evaluating the Impact of Digital Resources on University Students' Self-Perception and Academic Performance in ESP Learning

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