Synthesis and Evaluation of a Hybrid Miltefosine-Silver Nanoparticle Complex: Synergistic Interaction with Benznidazole Against Trypanosoma cruzi

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-6294121/v1

Objective: Chagas disease is an infectious disease classified under neglected tropical diseases and caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. This study aimed to investigate the cytotoxic activity, antitrypanosomal efficacy, and combination effects with benznidazole of hybrid silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) synthesized with miltefosine.

Methods: In this study, a hybrid miltefosine (Mil)-silver nanoparticle (OA-MilAgNP) complex was synthesized. The nanoparticles were characterized using FT-IR spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses. The cytotoxicity of the nanoparticles was assessed in L929 fibroblast cells, while their antitrypanosomal activity was evaluated against a Trypanosoma cruzi strain using the liquid microdilution method. The interaction between the nanoparticle complex or miltefosine and benznidazole was analyzed using the checkerboard method.

Results: FT-IR analysis demonstrated that the amylose surface was successfully coated with silver and miltefosine, confirming the successful synthesis of the hybrid complex. SEM analysis revealed that the nanoparticles exhibited a spherical morphology with varying sizes, while TEM analysis determined their sizes ranged between 10.14 and 18.42 nm. The OA-MilAgNP complex exhibited high antitrypanosomal activity and a selectivity index twice as high as that of miltefosine. Synergistic interactions were observed in the combinations of the OA-MilAgNP complex or miltefosine with benznidazole.

Conclusion: The development of novel bioactive compounds with lower toxicity compared to traditional drugs has become essential for the treatment of Chagas disease. Drug repurposing combined with nanotechnology applications holds significant potential for improving therapeutic outcomes. The hybridization of miltefosine with silver nanoparticles, demonstrating strong antitrypanosomal activity and synergistic effects with benznidazole, may fill critical gaps in the literature.

Silver nanoparticles

Miltefosine

Synergy

T. cruzi

Chagas disease is an infectious disease categorized under neglected tropical diseases, caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. The infection can be transmitted through Triatomine bugs (vector-borne), oral routes (foodborne), during pregnancy or childbirth (congenital), blood or blood products, organ transplantation, and laboratory accidents. It is estimated that approximately 6–7 million people worldwide are infected with T. cruzi, and the disease causes around 12,000 deaths annually. Despite its increasing global presence, Chagas disease is primarily observed in the endemic regions of 21 Latin American countries, where transmission largely depends on the presence of vectors. Currently, it is estimated that approximately 75 million people are at risk of infection [1]. The high levels of global human mobility due to migration, natural disasters, war, and tourism may lead to the emergence of neglected tropical diseases like Chagas disease in non-endemic regions as well [2].

Most acute infections are asymptomatic or present with non-specific symptoms such as fever, lymphadenopathy, and hepatosplenomegaly. Regardless of the mode of transmission, severe manifestations include myocarditis and encephalitis, with the severity of the disease likely associated with the parasitic load. Most acute infections go unrecognized and are rarely diagnosed. Approximately 30% of chronically infected patients develop Chagas cardiomyopathy years later. Chagas cardiomyopathy can lead to stroke, heart failure, thromboembolic events, and death [3].

Nanotechnology is a scientific discipline based on the synthesis and utilization of particles at the nanometer scale for various purposes. The physicochemical and biological properties of nanoparticles (NPs) vary depending on their morphological and structural characteristics, particle size, and surface area [4]. Recently, scientists have focused extensively on research related to nanotechnology applications. Nanotechnology is employed in the execution of precise medical procedures and contributes to fields such as diagnostics, disease treatment, regenerative medicine, gene therapy, dentistry, oncology, the cosmetic industry, drug delivery, and therapeutics [5].

Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, is treated with two drugs: benznidazole and nifurtimox. However, these drugs have several disadvantages, including their effectiveness being limited to the acute or early stages of infection, the occurrence of side effects during treatment, and the parasite developing resistance to their efficacy. Therefore, it is essential to identify new, safe, and effective therapeutic alternatives for the treatment of Chagas disease. Scientists are working on several strategies to address this issue. These include modifying traditional drug dosages, redesigning drugs, combination therapies, and nanotechnology [6,7]. Some studies in the literature report remarkable results regarding inorganic nanoparticles with antimicrobial properties, such as gold, silver, zinc oxide, and titanium dioxide nanoparticles [7,8].

In our previous study, we determined that hybrid curcumin silver nanoparticles exhibited strong efficacy against Leishmania species, which are closely related to T. cruzi [7]. Based on the findings of that study, the present work aims to synthesize a hybrid complex by combining miltefosine the first and only orally effective drug for the treatment of leishmaniasis with silver nanoparticles, evaluate the antitrypanosomal activity of this novel hybrid complex, and investigate its combination with benznidazole.

Ethical Approval

No human or animal materials were used in this study. The experiments were conducted using parasite strains preserved in liquid nitrogen. Therefore, ethical approval is not required.

Trypanosoma cruzi Strain and Cell Line

The Trypanosoma cruzi ATCC 50825 reference strain and the L929 mouse fibroblast cell line (American Type Culture Collection, USA) used in this study were obtained from the Parasite Bank of Manisa Celal Bayar University Faculty of Medicine.

Drugs

Miltefosine (B2693-072166) was obtained from BOCScience (USA), and benznidazole (419656) was obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (USA).

Synthesis of Nanoparticle Complexes

Synthesis of Oxidized Amylose

15 mL of 30% H₂O₂, 2 mL of 0.05% CuSO₄, and 60 g of amylose were combined and stirred at 40°C for 15 minutes. At the end of this period, 400 mL of boiling water was added to the mixture, which was then stirred at 75°C for an additional 15 minutes. After this step, another 400 mL of boiling water was added, and the mixture was stirred at 100°C for 30 minutes. The solution was cooled to room temperature and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 20 minutes. To remove copper ions from the resulting supernatant, dialysis was performed. The dialysis bag was dialyzed against distilled water at room temperature for two days, protected from light [9].

Synthesis of Hybrid Oxidized Amylose Miltefosine Silver Nanoparticle (OA-MilAg-NP) Complex

To the dialyzed oxidized amylose supernatant, 100 mL of boiling water and 75 mL of 0.02 mol/L AgNO₃ were added and kept at 100°C in a dark environment for 120 minutes. Subsequently, 1 g of miltefosine was added to the mixture, which was cooled to room temperature with constant stirring. The mixture was centrifuged at 12,000 rpm for 15 minutes to remove excess miltefosine. Similarly, the excess AgNO₃ in the mixture was removed by dialysis [10] . The synthesized hybrid nanoparticle complex was lyophilized using the Christ Alpha 1-2 LD Plus lyophilization device at the Balikesir University Science and Technology Application and Research Center.

FT-IR, SEM, and TEM Characterization of OA-MilAg-NP Complex

The FT-IR spectra of the hybrid nanoparticle complexes were recorded using a Perkin Elmer Spectrum 65 model device with a wavenumber range of 4000 cm⁻¹ to 400 cm⁻¹, located at Balikesir University, the Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Letters. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images were obtained using the JEOL JSM-7100F model device, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images were acquired using the JEOL JEM-1400 Plus model device, both located at the Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Science and Technology Application and Research Center.

Preparation of OA-MilAg-NP Complex, Miltefosine, and Benznidazole Stock Solutions

The hybrid nanoparticle stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 10,000 μg/mL using sterile distilled water, the miltefosine stock solution at 1024 μg/mL using sterile distilled water, and the benznidazole stock solution at 1240 μg/mL using ethanol + water (solvent + diluent).

Determination of Cytotoxic Activity of OA-MilAg-NP Complex, Miltefosine, and Benznidazole

Fibroblasts preserved in liquid nitrogen were treated with RPMI-1640 and passaged into RPMI-1640 medium containing 10% FBS (fetal bovine serum). The cells were incubated at 37°C with 5% CO₂ for 48 hours. The number and viability of proliferating cells were determined using Trypan Blue staining and a hemocytometer. A 100 µL cell suspension containing 10⁵ cells/mL was distributed into 96-well microplates. Serial dilutions of the OA-MilAg-NP suspension (final concentration range: 5000–39 µg/mL), miltefosine (final concentration range: 512–0.125 µg/mL), and benznidazole (final concentration range: 640–0.60 µg/mL) were prepared in a separate microplate and transferred to the microplates containing the cells. The plates were incubated at 37°C with 5% CO₂ for 48 hours. Cell viability was determined using the MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay [11], and absorbance values were measured at 570 nm using a Thermo Varioskan model spectrophotometer (USA). IC₅₀ values indicating cytotoxic activity were calculated using GraphPad Prism 8.4.2 software. The cytotoxic activity tests were repeated three times on different days [7].

Determination of Antitrypanosomal Activity of OA-MilAg-NP Complex, Miltefosine, and Benznidazole

The Trypanosoma cruzi (ATCC 50828) strain, thawed from liquid nitrogen, was cultured in LIT and NNN medium [12] and brought to the logarithmic phase in RPMI-1640 medium containing 10% FBS. For the determination of antitrypanosomal activity, 100 μL of RPMI-1640 medium was distributed into each well of sterile, flat-bottom, 96-well microplates. Serial dilutions of the hybrid NP complex were prepared in the range of 2500–19.5 μg/mL, miltefosine in the range of 128–1 μg/mL, and benznidazole in the range of 320–0.30 μg/mL. A 100 μL epimastigote suspension at a concentration of 1×10⁵/mL was added to all wells except the negative control, and the plates were incubated at 26±1°C for 24, 48, and 72 hours [13]. The morphological structure and motility of the epimastigotes in all wells were observed under an inverted microscope. The lowest concentration of the active substance at which all parasites were immobile and their morphology was disrupted was determined as the minimum parasiticidal concentration (MPC). Epimastigote viability was assessed using the MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay [11]. Absorbance values were measured at 570 nm using a Thermo Varioskan model spectrophotometer (USA). IC₅₀ values indicating antitrypanosomal activity were calculated using GraphPad Prism 8.4.2 software. Efficacy tests were repeated three times on different days [7].

Determination of Selectivity Index (SI) Values for OA-MilAg-NP Complex, Miltefosine, and Benznidazole

The SI value was calculated using the following formula by dividing the IC₅₀ value obtained for fibroblast cells (L929) by the IC₅₀ value obtained for T. cruzi epimastigotes:

SI = IC₅₀ value for fibroblasts / IC₅₀ value for T. cruzi epimastigotes

SI values greater than 1.00 indicate that the tested substance exhibits higher selectivity against epimastigotes than fibroblasts [14].

Determination of Interactions Between OA-MilAg-NP Complex and Miltefosine, with Benznidazole

The interaction between the OA-MilAg-NP complex and miltefosine with benznidazole was determined using the checkerboard method. Two 96-well microplates were used for each combination. In the first microplate, 100 μL of RPMI-1640 medium was distributed into all wells. Serial dilutions of the OA-MilAg-NP complex and miltefosine were performed vertically, starting from three dilutions above their IC₅₀ values and proceeding five dilutions below. In the second microplate, 110 μL of RPMI-1640 medium was distributed into all wells up to the 8th column. A 110 μL solution of benznidazole was added to the wells in the 8th column, and horizontal serial dilutions were performed from right to left. The dilutions in the second microplate were then transferred to the corresponding wells in the first microplate in 100 μL volumes [15]. In all wells of the first microplate, except for the medium and sterility control wells, 100 μL of a parasite suspension at a concentration of 10⁵ epimastigotes/mL was added. Four wells were used for each control: growth control (RPMI-1640 + epimastigotes), medium control (RPMI-1640), and sterility control (RPMI-1640 + hybrid NP complex/miltefosine/benznidazole). The microplates were incubated at 26°C for 24, 48, and 72 hours. The morphological structure and motility of the epimastigotes in all wells were observed under an inverted microscope. The lowest concentration of the active substance at which all parasites were immobile and their morphology disrupted was determined as the minimum parasiticidal concentration (MPC) [7].

The interaction between the OA-MilAg-NP complex, miltefosine (Mil), and benznidazole (Benz) was determined by calculating the fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) index using the following formula with MPC values:

FIC index= FIC_{OA-MilAg-NP/Mil}+ FIC_Ben

FIC indeX= (MPC_{OA-MilAg-NP/Mil in comnbination}/MPC_{OA-MilAg-NP/Mil alone}) + (MPC_{Benz in comnbination}/MPC_{Benz alone})

The calculated FIC index values were interpreted based on the following thresholds:

FIC index ≤ 0.5: synergy; FIC index = 0.50–0.75: partial synergy; FIC index = 0.75–1: additive; FIC index = 1.00–4.00: indifferent; FIC index ≥ 4.00: antagonism [16].

Statistical Analyses

The obtained data were analyzed using IBM SPSS 25.0 statistical software (IBM SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Significant differences between groups were analyzed using one-way ANOVA, followed by multiple comparisons evaluated with Tukey's test. Differences were considered statistically significant when p < 0.05.

FT-IR Characterization of the OA-MilAg-NP Complex

Characterization of the synthesized OA-MilAgNP was achieved using FTIR (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy) analysis. Structural differences of OA-MilAgNP and bare oxidized amylose were monitored using FTIR spectra to prove synthesize of hybrid nanoparticle complex. Accordingly, the peaks at 1365 cm^-1, 1296 cm^-1, 1022 cm^-1, 942 cm^-1 and 611 cm-¹ wavenumbers were newly appeared on OA-MilAgNP spectrum. The peak observed at 1365 cm^-1 was attributed to methyl group in phosphocholine structure of miltefosine. Additionally, the peaks 1296 cm^-1 and 1022 cm^-1 corresponds P=O and P-O-C stretching vibrations, respectively. The peak 942 cm^-1 was associated with C-N stretching vibration. The vibration at 611 cm^-1 may be attributed to P-O bending. Moreover, the peaks 2851 cm^-1and 2921 cm^-1 which were sharper and clear on OA-MilAgNP spectrum, corresponds the asymmetric and symmetric C-H stretching vibrations of the long alkyl chain of miltefosine. Those abovementioned results strongly emphasize that synthesize of hybrid OA-MilAgNP complex was successfully performed.

SEM and TEM Characterization of the OA-MilAg-NP Complex

SEM analyses of the hybrid nanoparticle complex revealed that silver ions and miltefosine molecules were successfully incorporated into the surface of oxidized amylose, which forms the core of the structure, confirming the successful synthesis of the nanoparticle complex. The obtained images showed that the nanoparticles have a rounded morphological appearance, vary in size, and are successfully attached to the surface of oxidized amylose. TEM analysis revealed that the nanoparticle sizes ranged between 10.14 and 18.42 nm (Figure 2).

Antitrypanosomal Activity Results of OA-MilAg-NP Complex, Miltefosine, and Benznidazole

A time-dependent decrease in the IC₅₀ values of the OA-MilAg-NP complex, miltefosine, and benznidazole was observed, corresponding to an increase in antitrypanosomal activity (Table I and Figure 3). While the MPC values, where all parasites were killed, remained constant at 24 and 48 hours, the effective concentration decreased by one dilution at 72 hours. It was determined that the IC₅₀ and MPC values of benznidazole and miltefosine were close to each other (p>0.05) and that they exhibited stronger antitrypanosomal activity compared to the OA-MilAg-NP complex. The strongest antitrypanosomal activity was observed in the order of miltefosine, benznidazole, and the OA-MilAg-NP complex. While there was no statistically significant difference between the activities of benznidazole and miltefosine (p>0.05), the difference between each of these compounds and the OA-MilAg-NP complex was found to be significant (p<0.05). All tested compounds were determined to have strong antitrypanosomal activity (Table I and Figure 3).

Table I. IC₅₀ and MPC values (µg/mL) of OA-MilAg-NP complex, miltefosine and benznidazole against T. cruzi strain
Active Ingredients	24h		48h		72h
Active Ingredients	IC₅₀	MPC	IC₅₀	MPC	IC₅₀	MPC
OA-MilAg-NP	196.6	625	171.5	625	94.82	312.5
Miltefosine	26.17	128	14.98	128	6.42	64
Benznidazole	67.11	155	44.95	155	34.53	77.5
Mil: Miltefosine; NP: Nanoparticle; IC₅₀: 50% inhibitory concentration; MPC: Minimum parasiticidal concentration

Cytotoxic Activity Results and Selectivity Index (SI) Values of OA-MilAg-NP Complex, Miltefosine, and Benznidazole

The cytotoxic activities of the OA-MilAg-NP complex, miltefosine, and benznidazole against fibroblast cells were determined to range between 1101–764 µg/mL, 38.05–27 µg/mL, and 1011–806.9 µg/mL, respectively, at 24, 48, and 72 hours. When SI values were calculated, miltefosine showed positive selectivity (SI>1), whereas the OA-MilAg-NP complex and benznidazole exhibited high selectivity (SI>3) (Table II and Figure 4).

Table II. Cytotoxicity and selectivity index values (µg/mL) of OA-MilAg-NP complex, miltefosine and benznidazole
Active Ingredients	24h (IC₅₀)			48h (IC₅₀)			72h (IC₅₀)
Active Ingredients	T.cruzi	L929	SI	T.cruzi	L929	SI	T.cruzi	L929	SI
OA-MilAg-NP	196.6	1101	5.6	171.5	945	5.5	94.82	764	8
Miltefosine	26.17	38.05	1.5	14.98	33.51	2.2	6.42	27	4.2
Benznidazole	67.11	1011	15	44.95	822.1	18.2	34.53	806.9	23
Mil: Miltefosine; Nanoparticles IC₅₀: % 50 inhibition concentration; L929: Fibroblast cell line; SI: Selectivity index

Interactions Between OA-MilAg-NP Complex, Miltefosine, and Benznidazole

Synergistic interactions were observed for all incubation periods in the combinations of the OA-MilAg-NP complex and miltefosine with benznidazole (Table III).

Table III. Interaction of OA-MilAg-NP Complex and Miltefosine and benznidazole combinations against T. cruzi
Combinations	24h		48h		72h
Combinations	FIC index	Interaction	FIC index	Interaction	FIC index	Interaction
OA-MilAgNP+Benz	0.499	Synergy	0.374	Synergy	0.312	Synergy
Mil+Benz	0.375	Synergy	0.375	Synergy	0.375	Synergy
Ag: Silver, NP: Nanoparticle, Benz: Benznidazole, Mil: Miltefosine, FIC: Fractional inhibitory concentration

Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, is considered a neglected tropical disease due to the lack of safe and effective treatments. Current treatment options are limited to nifurtimox and benznidazole, both of which were developed over 40 years ago [17]. While etiological treatment in the acute phase leads to high rates of parasite clearance and seronegative results, treatment success in the chronic phase remains debatable. Adverse events, particularly in adults, are common and often lead to discontinuation of treatment [18]. Pharmaceutical companies have shifted their focus to long-term use drugs rather than investing in costly R&D for new molecule development [19]. This situation underscores the need for strategies aimed at discovering new antimicrobial drugs.

Drug repurposing is the process of using an existing drug or drug candidate for a new therapeutic indication or medical condition not originally intended. In this process, the unintended side effects of drug molecules can serve as markers for discovering their effectiveness in entirely different medical conditions. Typically, drugs with proven safety in humans are tested and developed for efficacy in diseases other than the one for which they were originally designed. This process bypasses early drug development stages, thereby reducing risks and costs [20]. However, like traditional drugs, repurposed drugs face challenges related to formulation and delivery, such as poor aqueous solubility, limited stability, and/or incompatibility with new delivery routes. Nanotechnology plays a significant role in promoting the efficient use of highly active but poorly delivered drugs. It is frequently explored as a means to overcome challenges such as poor solubility, toxicity, and multidrug resistance in drug delivery systems [21].

Miltefosine is considered a protein kinase B (PKB) inhibitor, a key regulator of intracellular signaling essential for cell viability [22]. However, the mechanisms underlying its antiprotozoal activity remain incompletely understood. Some evidence suggests that it inhibits phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin synthesis, induces apoptosis [23], or inhibits mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase and alters the organelle membrane [22]. Similarly, it has been proposed that miltefosine inhibits parasite phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis through the transmethylation pathway [24]. Recently, it has been suggested that miltefosine targets a sphingosine-activated plasma membrane Ca²⁺ channel in both Leishmania donovani and T. cruzi, affecting intracellular calcium homeostasis [25].

Several studies in the literature demonstrate the efficacy of miltefosine against T. cruzi in both in vitro and in vivo [17,26,27]. A recent study by Gulin et al. (2022) reported IC₅₀ values of miltefosine against T. cruzi amastigote and trypomastigote forms as 0.48 µM and 0.55 µM, respectively, and LC₅₀ (lethal concentration) values as 29.56 µM and 32.87 µM, respectively. They also found that the combination of miltefosine and benznidazole exhibited synergistic and additive interactions against trypomastigotes and amastigotes, respectively. Additionally, they reported that the combination was more effective than miltefosine alone in reducing parasitemia in an in vivo rodent model.

In our study, unlike those in the literature, we synthesized a hybrid oxidized amylose miltefosine silver nanoparticle (OA-MilAg-NP) complex by combining miltefosine with silver and compared its efficacy against T. cruzi with that of miltefosine and benznidazole. We also investigated the in vitro interactions of both miltefosine and the OA-MilAg-NP complex with benznidazole. In our previous study, we demonstrated that a natural active component (curcumin) and silver NP complex exhibited strong antileishmanial activity with low cytotoxicity against Leishmania species [7]. Based on this, we aimed to enhance the efficacy of miltefosine while reducing its toxicity against T. cruzi, a parasite closely related to Leishmania species, using nanoparticle formulations and to identify synergistic interactions in combination with benznidazole.

The synthesized miltefosine-silver NP complex was prepared using a method involving oxidized amylose as the core and miltefosine and silver ions at the nanoparticle level on the surface, as in our previous study [7,9,10]. FTIR spectra of the OA-MilAg-NP complex revealed peak shifts and splitting, indicating the successful attachment of functional groups to the oxidized amylose surface. SEM and TEM imaging showed that the OA-MilAg-NP complex had a round morphology, variable sizes, and a size range of 10.14–18.42 nm.

A recent study by Latifi et al. (2024) synthesized miltefosine as chitosan nanoparticles with an average size of 46.61 nm and reported that the formulation was more effective against Acanthamoeba trophozoites and cysts than miltefosine alone. The same study also indicated that the NP formulation exhibited significantly lower cytotoxicity on Vero cell lines compared to miltefosine [28].

In our study, we compared the toxicity of the OA-MilAg-NP complex to L929 mouse fibroblasts with that of miltefosine and benznidazole and calculated the selectivity index (SI) for each compound. Benznidazole, as a conventional drug, exhibited the highest SI values during 24, 48, and 72-hour incubation periods. Notably, the OA-MilAg-NP complex showed at least twice the selectivity of miltefosine alone based on SI values (Table II). The SI values suggest that our synthesized NP complex is suitable for further in vivo studies (SI>3).

A study investigating the efficacy of miltefosine formulated with lipid NPs against cutaneous leishmaniasis reported that lipid NPs had an average size of 160.8 nm, six times lower cytotoxicity against macrophage cell lines, and strong antileishmanial activity in vivo [29]. We believe that the much smaller NP size (10.14–18.42 nm) achieved with our synthesis method compared to other studies [30] may be a significant factor in enhancing antimicrobial activity.

There are limited studies in the literature on the combination of benznidazole and miltefosine against T. cruzi. Gulin et al. (2022) noted that the synergistic interaction of benznidazole and miltefosine observed in vitro was also effective in vivo. In our study, a synergistic interaction was observed between miltefosine and benznidazole. Furthermore, unlike the literature, our study demonstrated a synergistic interaction between the OA-MilAg-NP complex and benznidazole. The data we obtained represent the first evidence demonstrating the hybrid synthesis of the OA-MilAg-NP complex based on oxidized amylose and its efficacy against T. cruzi.

The data obtained on the efficacy of our oxidized amylose-based OA-MilAg-NP complex against T. cruzi and its interaction with benznidazole represent a novel contribution to the literature and provide valuable insights for the treatment of Chagas disease.

Limitations

The most significant limitation of this study is that the antitrypanosomal activity and interactions of the hybrid NP complex and miltefosine with benznidazole, which exhibited acceptable SI values, were not evaluated in experimental animal models.

Investigating and developing new bioactive compounds with lower toxicity compared to conventional drugs for Chagas disease treatment through nanotechnology applications can provide significant contributions to therapeutic efficacy in the literature. The hybridization of miltefosine with silver nanoparticles, which has demonstrated efficacy against leishmaniasis, and the strong antitrypanosomal activities of these novel molecules along with their synergistic interactions with existing antitrypanosomal drugs, can address significant gaps in the literature. These findings pave the way for designing new drug combinations, reducing side effects, and preventing resistance development, offering valuable insights for future studies.

Conflict Of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Author Contribution

Y.O, IC and AO wrote the main manuscript, made the analyses and prepare figures and tables. FT and SB synthesized nanoparticles and performed FTIR characterization. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Acknowledgement

We would like to thank the Parasite Bank of Manisa Celal Bayar University Faculty of Medicine for providing the parasite strain and cell line used in this study.

Data Availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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No competing interests reported.

Synthesis and Evaluation of a Hybrid Miltefosine-Silver Nanoparticle Complex: Synergistic Interaction with Benznidazole Against Trypanosoma cruzi

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Abstract

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