A One-Phase Injection Method to Improve the Strength and Uniformity in MICP with Polycarboxylic Acid Added

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4350603/v1

The production and distribution uniformity of calcium carbonate plays a pivotal role in enhancing the effectiveness of microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP). Various methods have been proposed to enhance the conversion rate of calcium ions and ensure uniform calcium carbonate distribution. These include multi-phase injection methods and one-phase injection methods with environmental factors such as pH and temperature controlled. Polycarboxylic acid, a polymer organic substance rich in carboxylic acid groups, serves as a regulator for the initial precipitation time of calcium carbonate. It aids in increasing the total output of calcium carbonate by complexing calcium ions. This study introduces and investigates a one-phase injection method of MICP with the addition of polycarboxylic acid. The methodology is examined through bacteria growth tests, tube tests, sand column tests, and microscopic analyses. The results indicate that polycarboxylic acid does not exhibit any side effects on Sporosarcina pasteurii (S. pasteurii). When the urease activity of the bacterial solution is maintained at 15 kU/L and the concentration of the cement solution is 1 mol/L, incorporating a 3% solution of polycarboxylic acid delays the initial precipitation time of calcium carbonate by more than two hours. This delay significantly contributes to improving the uniformity of calcium carbonate distribution, with complete precipitation of calcium ions occurring within 24 hours. After five treatment cycles, the unconfined compressive strength of the sand column reaches 2.76 MPa. This method demonstrates promising potential for application in enhancing reinforcement effects and streamlining the reinforcement process.

MICP

One-phase injection

CaCO3 distribution

Unconfined compressive stress

Conversion rate

Microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP), a low-carbon and environmentally friendly reinforcement technology, has shown promising application potential in ground reinforcement, erosion control, and concrete crack repair [7, 12, 13, 27, 50, 54]. MICP consists of two main processes: hydrolysis of urea into ammonium and carbonate ions, and the combination of carbonate ions with calcium ions to form a calcium carbonate precipitate. The production and distribution of calcium carbonate have a great influence on the reinforcement effectiveness of MICP [51, 56]. Thus, how to make calcium carbonate form a large amount of uniform cementation in soil and developing the practical supporting reinforcement process has attracted the attention of academic communities[52, 57]. Various approaches have been utilized to simplify the application process and enhance the practical effectiveness of MICP. These efforts primarily focus on refining the grouting process [4, 20, 29] or incorporating specific admixtures [28, 43, 45]. Despite these advancements, a noticeable gap still exists in achieving widespread industrial field application [15, 23, 25, 35, 26, 24]. To address the imperative of achieving overall uniformity in calcium carbonate distribution, current MICP reinforcement methods predominantly favor the two-phase injection approach [3, 22, 37]. This approach involves the sequential addition of bacterial solution and cement solution to the soil in two stages. An interval is required to facilitate the adsorption of bacteria onto soil particles, ensuring a comprehensive and effective reinforcement process. To simplify MICP process, some researchers advocate for a one-phase injection approach with uniform cementation. The fundamental concept behind this approach is to delay the initial precipitation time of calcium carbonate, allowing solute and bacteria to thoroughly diffuse in the reinforced soil before reacting to generate calcium carbonate precipitation. Cheng et al. [5] proposed the low pH one-phase injection method, achieving a relatively uniform distribution of calcium carbonate. Building on this work, Cui et al. [9–11] optimized the approach and conducted a comparative analysis between low-pH MICP and EICP injection processes. Wang et al. [39] implemented one-phase injection reinforcement by introducing NBPT to reduce urease activity, while Wang et al. [40] introduced low-temperature control to enhance one-phase injection. These methods have contributed to improving the uniformity of calcium carbonate distribution and reinforcement effectiveness. However, some of them inhibit bacterial or urease activity. This may diminish the efficiency of the reinforcement process.

Polycarboxylic acid is a non-toxic macromolecular organic substance that contains a significant number of carboxylic acid groups [16, 19, 34, 36, 53]. These acid groups can form complexes with calcium ions, inhibiting calcium carbonate precipitation. Consequently, polycarboxylic acid finds wide application as a boiler scale inhibitor in various industries. Zhen et al. [46] experimented with adding polyacrylic acid to the MICP reaction system and observed a substantial improvement in calcium carbonate yield within a specific range. Thiloththama et al. [30, 31] investigated the effects of using poly-Lys and polysaccharide chitosan as additives in MICP, providing insights into their impact on reinforcement effectiveness and proposing that poly-Lys serves as a calcium carbonate coagulation nucleus in place of bacteria during the reinforcement process. Yao et al.[48] enhanced MICP technology with polyglutamic acid and elucidated its mechanism for improving MICP effectiveness. In summary, polycarboxylic acid possesses several key properties: it is safe and non-toxic, it increases the overall precipitation of calcium carbonate in the MICP process, and it inhibits the early precipitation of calcium carbonate. Consequently, it is well-suited to function as an additive for the MICP one-phase injection process. Currently, the effects and mechanisms of polycarboxylic acid on increasing calcium carbonate production in the MICP process are well-understood. However, there is limited information on the reported phenomenon of polycarboxylic acid inhibiting the early crystallization of calcium carbonate. Nevertheless, early inhibition of calcium carbonate crystallization holds significant potential for enhancing the uniform distribution of calcium carbonate and merits further exploration.

To capitalize on the inhibitory effect of polycarboxylic acid on the early precipitation of calcium carbonate, which enhances the uniformity of calcium carbonate and streamlines the MICP reinforcement process, this paper introduces a one-phase injection method of MICP incorporating polycarboxylic acid. The optimal addition content of polycarboxylic acid was determined by comprehensively analyzing tube test and sand column test results. The results demonstrated significant achievements in process simplification and reinforcement improvement with the MICP one-phase injection method incorporating polycarboxylic acid when compared to previous reinforcement methods.

2.1 Experiment Materials

The bacteria employed in this test were S. pasteurii, obtained from CGMCC No. 1.3687. Cultivation of the bacteria occurred in a liquid medium primarily comprising 20 g/L yeast extract, 10 g/L ammonium sulfate, and 15.8 g/L tris-base. ISO standard sand was utilized in the test, and its grading curve was depicted in Fig. 1 (a). The specific gravity, maximum void ratio(e_max), minimum void ratio (e_min) of the standard sand are 2.66, 0.767 and 0.378, respectively. According to the grading curve, the effective diameter(d₁₀), mean diameter(d₃₀), controlled diameter(d₆₀) equal to 0.14, 0.45 and 0.90, respectively. The coefficient of curvature (C_c) is 1.61, and the uniformity coefficient(C_u) is 6.43.

The polycarboxylic acid utilized in the experiment was a water-reducing agent manufactured by Hunan Zhongyan Building Materials Company, as illustrated in Fig. 1 (b). The key active component of this water-reducing agent was polycarboxylic acid, possessing a relative molecular mass of 50,000 and a lower cost compared to other polycarboxylic acid chemicals. The primary constituents of the cement solution included calcium chloride and urea, both present in equal concentrations of 1 mol/L.

2.2 Testing Methods

2.2.1 Bacterial growth test

Polycarboxylic acid, a widely used safe and non-toxic additive in industry and construction, had not been thoroughly examined for its impact on bacterial growth activity. This study addressed this gap by introducing various volume fractions of polycarboxylic acid into the bacterial culture medium. Different volumes of polycarboxylic acid were added to the medium before inoculation in the experiment. At specific intervals, a portion of the bacterial solution was extracted. The bacterial concentration and urease activity of the bacterial solution were measured by a spectrophotometer and the conductivity method [42] respectively. The bacterial urease activity per unit concentration was calculated by dividing the urease activity by bacterial concentration. Results were compared to investigate the potential influence of polycarboxylic acid on bacterial growth and urease activity. The specific test conditions are detailed in Table 1.

Table 1

Bacterial growth test condition
Serial number		Time interval/h
1	0:100	14, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 12, 24
2	1:100
3	2:100
4	3:100
5	4:100
6	5:100

2.2.2 Tube test

The cementation effectiveness of the sand column primarily relies on the amount of produced calcium carbonate. Consequently, prior to the sand column test, the generation of calcium carbonate at different reaction times under varying doses of polycarboxylic acid was ascertained through a tube test. Specific test conditions are outlined in Table 2.

During the experiment, various volume fractions of polycarboxylic acid were introduced into a cement solution containing 1 mol/L calcium chloride and urea. The urease activity of bacteria solution was adjusted to 15kU/L by adding pure water to the original bacteria solution whose urease activity was measured by conductivity method. Subsequently, the bacterial solution and cement solution were mixed in a 1:3 volume ratio. Each dosage of polycarboxylic acid was subjected to centrifugation for 8 minutes at a speed of 5000 r/min at specific reaction times. After centrifugation, the supernatant was separated, and its pH was measured. The precipitate at the bottom of the centrifuge tube was washed with pure water and then dried in an oven at 55 ℃. The resulting calcium carbonate was weighed after complete drying, and the conversion rate of calcium ions was calculated using Eq. (1), where C_CR represents the conversion rate of calcium ions, C_P stands for the production of calcium carbonate, and C_TY stands for the theoretical yield of calcium carbonate. The comparison of the conversion rate of calcium ions over time was conducted under conditions of varying amounts of added polycarboxylic acid.

$${{\text{C}}_{{\text{CR}}}}\% =\frac{{{{\text{C}}_{\text{P}}}}}{{{{\text{C}}_{{\text{TY}}}}}} \times 100\%$$

1

Table 2

Solution test condition table.
Serial number	Urease activity of bacteria solution	Polycarboxylic acid:culture medium (Volume ratio)	Time interval/h
1	15 kU/L	0:100	0.5, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 4, 12
2		1:100
3		2:100
4		3:100
5		4:100
6		5:100

2.2.3 Sand column test

To investigate the actual reinforcement effects of one-phase injection with polycarboxylic acid, a sand column test was conducted. ISO standard sand, with a relative density of 50%, was packed into a PVC pipe mold using the layering compaction method. This process resulted in a cylindrical specimen measuring 4 cm in diameter and 8 cm in height. To minimize the impact of water flow on the sample and ensure the integrity of the sample shape during the grouting reinforcement process, a permeable stone was placed on both the upper and lower surfaces of the sand column.

Having adjusted the bacterial solution activity to 15 kU/L as in the tube test, the bacterial solution was combined with the cement solution containing varying volumes of polycarboxylic acid. This mixed solution was injected into the reinforced sand column in a single application. After allowing it to stand for 24 hours, one round of reinforcement was completed. Specific test conditions are outlined in Table 3.The unconfined compressive strength of sand columns under different doses of polycarboxylic acid and treatment times was measured using an unconfined compression test. Additionally, the distribution of calcium carbonate along the depth of the sand columns was assessed using a pickling method.

Table 3

Sand column test condition table.
Serial number	Urease activity of bacteria solution	Polycarboxylic acid:culture medium (Volume ratio)	Treatment time
1	15kU/L	0:100	1,3,5
2		1:100
3		3:100
4		5:100

2.2.4 Microscopic test

To examine the crystal types and morphology of calcium carbonate precipitates formed under varying polycarboxylic acid content, microscopic experiments were conducted. The XRD test was employed to compare the crystal forms of calcium carbonate formed at different polycarboxylic acid concentrations. Additionally, SEM testing was utilized to observe the morphology of calcium carbonate and the cementation between sand particles. Furthermore, FTIR testing was employed to measure the chemical bond information of calcium carbonate precipitates.

3.1 Effect of polycarboxylic acid on bacterial growth

Figure 2 (a), the bacteria growth curves under various polycarboxylic acid addition levels are presented. Notably, bacterial growth was rapid between 14 to 20 hours, reaching its peak concentration around 30 hours. The logistic model represented by Eq. (2) [14] was employed to fit the bacteria growth curve. Based on this model, the maximum bacteria growth rate, minimum doubling time, and maximum growth concentration were calculated, as depicted in Eq. (3)-(5). The fitting results and calculation outcomes are summarized in Table 4.

In the Eq. (2)-(5), N(t) represents the number of bacteria in the culture medium at time t, N₀ denotes the initial population in the culture medium, K indicates the carrying capacity of the environment, and r is the growth rate constant. The variables $\mu$_max, t_dmin and Gc_max signify the growth of bacteria, representing the maximum specific growth rate, minimum doubling time, and maximum growth concentration, respectively.

According to the fitting results, the addition of polycarboxylic acid exhibited almost no impact on the maximum specific growth rate and minimum doubling time of bacteria. However, after the addition of polycarboxylic acid, the carrying capacity decreased to some extent, with no significant difference observed between the carrying capacity and the addition of polycarboxylic acid. To quantitatively analyze whether polycarboxylic acid had an effect on bacterial growth, a statistical analysis was conducted.

Table 4

Results of bacterial growth curve fitting and growth parameters under different dosage of polycarboxylic acid
Addcon	K	r	R²	$\varvec{\mu }$_max 10⁷ cells/ml/h	t_dmin h	Gc_max 10⁷cells/ml
0	141.26	0.27	0.96	4.77	0.15	141.26
0.01	133.39	0.28	0.97	4.67	0.15	133.39
0.02	126.73	0.28	0.99	4.44	0.16	126.73
0.03	130.35	0.27	0.97	4.40	0.16	130.35
0.04	129.24	0.29	0.96	4.68	0.15	129.24
0.05	132.75	0.28	0.99	4.65	0.15	132.75

Multivariate analysis of variance[41] was employed to examine the correlation between polycarboxylic acid addition as the independent variable and maximum growth rate, minimum doubling time, and maximum growth concentration as dependent variables. The analysis results are presented in Table 5. The significance level is obviously greater than 0.05, which suggests that there is no significant correlation between the addition of polycarboxylic acid and the growth parameters. These findings indicate that there is no significant correlation between the maximum growth rate, minimum doubling time, and maximum growth concentration and the quantity of polycarboxylic acid added at the test concentration. This illustrates that polycarboxylic acid does not adversely affect the growth of S. pasteurii.

Table 5

Correlation analysis between polycarboxylic acid addition and basic growth parameters of bacteria.
multivariate linear model
Test Statistics		Value	Num DF	Den DF	F Value	P_r>F
Wilks’ lamda	Intercept	0.0000	3.0000	2.0000	26030.4705	0.0000
Wilks’ lamda	Addcon	0.3877	3.0000	2.0000	0.9684	0.0000
Pillai’s trace	Intercept	1.0000	3.0000	2.0000	26030.4705	0.0064
Pillai’s trace	Addcon	0.6123	3.0000	2.0000	0.9684	0.0000
Hotelling-Lawley trace	Intercept	39045.7057	3.0000	1.0000	13015.2352	0.5209
Hotelling-Lawley trace	Addcon	1.5792	3.0000	1.0000	0.4842	0.5209
Roy’s greatest root	Intercept	39045.7057	3.0000	2.0000	26030.4705	0.7381
Roy’s greatest root	Addcon	1.5792	3.0000	2.0000	0.9684	0.5209

In Fig. 2 (b), the changes in urease activity per unit bacterial concentration over time are illustrated under various polycarboxylic acid addition amounts. It is evident that the trend of urease activity per unit bacterial concentration over time remains consistent across different dosages of polycarboxylic acid.

Panel data analysis[33] was employed to investigate the impact of polycarboxylic acid addition on the urease activity of bacteria at unit concentration over time, considering the amount and culture time of polycarboxylic acid as independent variables. The analysis results are presented in Table 6. The significance level is obviously greater than 0.05, which suggests that the addition of polycarboxylic acid has no effect to the urease activity of bacteria per unit concentration.

Table 6

Correlation analysis of polycarboxylic acid addition amount and bacterial activity per unit concentration.
OLS Regression Results
Dep.V: Normalizedact	Coef	Std err	t	p>\| t \|	[0.025	0.975]
Const	0.339	0.030	11.133	0.000	0.278	0.400
Addcon	0.0094	0.007	1.299	0.199	-0.005	0.024
Time	-0.0039	0.001	-6.054	0.000	-0.005	-0.003

3.2 Effect of polycarboxylic acid on the precipitation of calcium carbonate

Figure 3 (a) illustrates the real-time reaction diagram of reaction systems with different amounts of polycarboxylic acids over the experiment. The diagram clearly shows that as the quantity of polycarboxylic acids added to the system increases, the time of calcium carbonate precipitation in the system significantly delays. In Fig. 3 (b), the change in calcium ion conversion rate with time in reaction systems with varying polycarboxylic acid additions is depicted. The figure indicates that the calcium ion conversion rate initially increases and then decreases at 24 hours with the rise in polycarboxylic acid concentration. When the amount of polycarboxylic acid is 3%, the precipitation rate of calcium ions reaches 100% within 24 hours.

As explained earlier, polycarboxylic acids can form complexes with calcium ions in solution reactions[1, 2, 18, 38, 46], resulting in a delayed precipitation formation time. When the amount of polycarboxylic acid is small, such as 1%, the inhibition effect is limited, leading to faster precipitation production. In cases where the amount of polycarboxylic acid is moderate, like 3%, the formation time of calcium carbonate can be delayed by the complexation of polycarboxylic acid and calcium ions. Additionally, the complexation of polycarboxylic acid and calcium ions allows the polycarboxylic acid to substitute for bacteria, serving as a condensation nucleus during the crystallization of calcium carbonate. This extension of the action time of bacteria contributes to a higher 24-hour conversion rate of calcium ions. However, when the amount of polycarboxylic acid is excessive, such as 5%, the inhibitory effect on the crystallization of calcium carbonate becomes more pronounced. As a result, the precipitation formation time is significantly delayed. By the time the reaction reaches 24 hours, the calcium ion conversion rate is still low.

In Fig. 4, the alterations in supernatant pH in the reaction system with varying amounts of added polycarboxylic acids are depicted. The figure reveals that the lowest pH value among all of the reaction systems is about 5.5, and the change in pH of the solution during the reaction process with different amounts of polycarboxylic acid is relatively minor, most of the time remaining stable between 6–7. This observation further suggests that the inhibition of calcium carbonate precipitation by polycarboxylic acid is attributed to the complexation between carboxylic acid groups and calcium ions, rather than a reduction in the pH of the reaction system.

3.3 Effect of polycarboxylic acid on the MICP cementation

In Fig. 5 (a), the unconfined compressive strength of the sand column under different reinforcement times with varying amounts of added polycarboxylic acid is presented. Notably, when polycarboxylic acid is not added, the sand column made by one-phase injection experienced serious blockage at the top, and the bottom cannot be cemented. Consequently, the strength of this group of sand columns is not shown in the figure. The test results indicate a noticeable increase in the strength of the sand column with an increase in reinforcement times. With the same reinforcement time, the strength of the sand column initially rises and then decreases with an increase in polycarboxylic acid ratio. This trend aligns with the change in calcium ion conversion observed in the tube test, suggesting a high correlation between the strength of the sand column and the content of calcium carbonate. After 5 rounds of treatment, the unconfined compressive strength of the sand column can reach up to 2.76 MPa. For reinforcement times of 1 and 3, the strength of the sand column with 1% addition is slightly higher than that with 5% addition. However, when the reinforcement time reaches 5, the strength of the sand column with a 5% addition is significantly higher than that of the 1% group. This may be attributed to the fact that the calcium carbonate content has a greater influence on strength at low reinforcement times, while the uniformity of calcium carbonate distribution has a more pronounced impact on the strength of the sand column at higher reinforcement times.

In Fig. 5 (b), the typical stress-strain curves and failure modes of sand columns, reinforced five times by adding three dosages of polycarboxylic acids, are presented. During the unconfined compression process, the sample undergone the compaction stage, followed by the elastic stage where the stiffness differences among samples were minimal. The elastic stage concludes upon reaching the peak stress. The 3% polycarboxylic acid group exhibits a longer elastic stage and higher peak stress, potentially attributed to the higher calcium carbonate content and more uniform distribution. Cracks appeared after reaching the peak stress, and these cracks continued to expand until the specimen was completely destroyed. The failure modes of all sand columns are brittle failure. The 1% addition amount experienced failure primarily at the bottom of the sample due to its lower calcium carbonate content. In contrast, the failure of the 3% and 5% addition amounts was attributed to splitting, indicative of a relatively uniform distribution of calcium carbonate.

Figure 5 (c) illustrates the distribution of calcium carbonate along the depth of the sand column under different reinforcement conditions. It is evident that the addition of polycarboxylic acid significantly improves the uniformity of calcium carbonate distribution in the specimen. When polycarboxylic acid was absent, calcium carbonate was primarily concentrated in the upper part of the sample, and the uneven distribution became more apparent with an increase in reinforcement times. Throughout the entire strengthening process, the calcium carbonate content at the bottom of the sample remains consistently low, explaining the failure of sample formation without the addition of polycarboxylic acid. At 1% addition and 5 reinforcement times, there is a slight uneven distribution of calcium carbonate. However, at concentrations of 3% and 5%, there is no obvious non-uniformity. The increase in calcium carbonate content from the third to the fifth grouting is not as substantial as from the first to the third, possibly due to previously generated calcium carbonate occupying part of the pore space, resulting in a decrease in the volume of reinforcement solution that can be injected.

Figure 5 (d) presents the data on calcium carbonate content and strength of the sand column measured in this experiment and relative studies. It is observed that the calcium carbonate content in the sand column in this study exhibits an exponential relationship with the strength of the sand column. Comparing the relationship between calcium carbonate content and the strength of the sand column in this study with other studies, it is noted that the strength in this study is higher under the same calcium carbonate content. This difference may be attributed to the more even distribution of calcium carbonate.

3.4 Microscopic analysis

In Fig. 6, the XRD results of calcium carbonate produced with varying amounts of polycarboxylic acid are presented. The findings reveal that the crystal morphology of the generated calcium carbonate in each group is predominantly calcite and vaterite. No significant differences are observed among these groups.

Figure 7 shows the SEM results of sand columns treated five times with polycarboxylic acid dosages of 0%, 1%, 3%, and 5%. The SEM images demonstrate that when 1% and 3% polycarboxylic acid is added, the calcium carbonate generated appears as distinct spheroids, with larger particle sizes and higher content compared to other groups. Particularly at 3%, the calcium carbonate crystals are noticeably larger, representing one possible reason for the higher strength of the sand column with 3% polycarboxylic acid addition.

Figure 8 displays the infrared spectra of polycarboxylic acids and the precipitates generated under different polycarboxylic acid dosages. The results indicate the presence of an absorption peak of the C-O bond of the carboxylic acid group in the calcium carbonate precipitates[17]. This absorption peak becomes more pronounced with an increase in the addition of polycarboxylic acid, suggesting that polycarboxylic acid co-precipitates with the generated calcium carbonate and plays a role in the nucleation process of calcium carbonate.

MICP technology holds promising applications in ground improvement, yet there is considerable room for enhancing the reinforcement process. This paper developed a one-phase grouting process with the addition of polycarboxylic acid to enhance the applicability of MICP technology. Through bacterial growth tests, tube tests, sand column tests, and microscopic analyses, the impact of polycarboxylic acid on MICP technology is analyzed comprehensively, leading to the following conclusions:

(1) Polycarboxylic acid, added at ratios ranging from 1–5%, exhibits no significant impact on the growth and urease activity of bacteria.

(2) The delay in calcium carbonate precipitation is attributed to the complexation of carboxylic acid ions with calcium ions, not the regulation of the reaction system's pH. As the added polycarboxylic acid increases, the formation time of calcium carbonate is progressively delayed. The calcium ion conversion rate initially rises and then decreases. The one-phase injection method with added polycarboxylic acid successfully reinforces the sand column. The strength increases initially and then decreases with the added amount. When 3% polycarboxylic acid is added, the unconfined strength of the sand column reaches 2.76 MPa after 5 treatments. The addition of polycarboxylic acid significantly improves the distribution uniformity of calcium carbonate in sand column samples. The content of calcium carbonate at each height of the sand column is nearly identical when the polycarboxylic acid amount is 3% or 5%.

(3) XRD results reveal that the crystal types of calcium carbonate generated in each group are primarily vaterite and calcite, with minimal differences. SEM images show a significant increase in the size of calcium carbonate crystal particles when 1%-3% polycarboxylic acid is added, especially at a dosage of 3%. Infrared spectra indicate the presence of C-O bonds of carboxylic acid in calcium carbonate, suggesting co-precipitation of polycarboxylic acid with the calcium carbonate crystal as a nucleation site.

Author Contribution

Yongqiang Zhu: Test, Validation, Data curation, Writing-original draft.Yujie Li: Investigation, VisualizationXingye Sun: Investigation, VisualizationShengjie Rui: Investigation, VisualizationZhen Guo: Conceptualization, Investigation, Supervision, Software, Writing-Reviewing and Editing.Daoqiong Zheng: Investigation, Supervision.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to acknowledge the supports from National Key R&D Program of China (2022YFB2602800), Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province (LR22E080005).

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No competing interests reported.

A One-Phase Injection Method to Improve the Strength and Uniformity in MICP with Polycarboxylic Acid Added

Status:

Journal Publication

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1 Introduction

2 Materials and Methods